The introduction of western - style educational reforms in early QAJAR era opened the door to ARTistic innovation in Iran .The royal house of painting was among those institutions to benefit from this innovation. By the second half of the nineteenth century, innovators introduced a new system of ART education based on European models. This interaction promoted a transition from the age- old apprenticeship system to one that included ARTistic training in a European style academic context. A 1278/1862 announcement in the state new paper, Rusnameh Iran, inviting students to study painting exemplified the new tendency to equate ART with schooling. Italy and France served as a model in the Iranian quest to academize ART in QAJAR period. Abu'L Hasan Ghaffari (sani'al - mulk) played a critical role in setting up the first painting school. The establishment of The Dar al- Funun in 1264/1851 was the driving force in the later dissemination of ART training in the European mode. The most significant outcome of kamal al-mulk's trip to Europe was the establishment of Iran's first academy of fine ARTs, the madraseh - i sanayi mustazrafeh , in 1327/1911 . This ARTicle uncovered documents that provide a clearer idea of educational reforms in QAJAR painting. The act of copying and producing replicas had been a dominant feature of the traditional karkhaneh system for centuries, but the motivation for the practice was different under the new system. Iranian ARTists of this period by replicating European paintings were not only experimenting with styles, methods, but were an essence striving to come to terms with their ambiguous relationship with Europe and to redefine themselves within a chaning global context . Portraits rendered in the European style as well as those painted from photographs, slowly began to overshadow earlier workshop paintings and designs. Long with European ARTistic styles, the science of photography gave impetus to the Persian ARTists desire to depict his subject as precisely and accurately as possible. The Daral - funun generated a new set of criteria for assessing the qualifications of its instructors. The school's administration gave preference to European educated Iranians: knowledge of conventions of European painting. The master painter was no longer elected by consensus of the members of his workshop, but was selected arbitrarily by the shah. Ali Akbar Muzayyin al - dawleh was the first master painter appointed through the new process. Although the apprenticeship system was challenged by the infiltration of European techniques, it was never completely replaced. No single pattern of ART training and production prevailed. However, the introduction of academy system training eventully broke down the structure of the age-old royal karkhaneh system within the royal context. Three critical reasons for this breakdown of the old system were: 1-A mark decline in architectural programs; 2- The rise of photography: 3- And the institutionalization of the lithographic print.  

تذهیب از هنرهای تزئینی ایرانی- اسلامی است که در نسخه های ادوار مختلف قابل مشاهده است و هنرمندان آثار نفیس قابل توجهی در این زمینه خلق کرده اند. دوره صفوی و قاجار هر کدام به فراخور شرایط زمانه و تاریخی خاص خود، بستری را برای پیشرفت هنرتذهیب فراهم نمودند و بدین ترتیب بررسی و ارزش گذاری ویژگی های سبکی آثار هر دوره و حجم تولید آنها قابل توجه می نماید. در این راستا، ابتدا تصاویری از کُتب خطی مذهب موجود در موزه ها(موزه ملی ملک، مجلس شورای اسلامی و موزه رضا عباسی و هنرهای تزیینی اصفهان)و نمونه های چاپیِ در دسترس انتخاب گردید و از نظر نقشمایه های تزئینی، ترکیب بندی و چگونگی کاربست آنها در تزیینات متن، سرلوح و حواشی مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. همچنین ویژگی های کلی سبک تذهیب کتب در دوره صفوی و قاجاریه مورد تحلیل و مقایسه قرار گرفتند. در دوره صفوی به دلیل حمایت مالی و نیز معنوی، شاه، بزرگان و اشراف، تولید آثار تذهیب در شمارگان بالا و در نهایت ظرافت و زیبایی انجام پذیرفته است. در اواخر دوره صفویه به دلیل کاهش حمایت دربار خلق آثار تک برگی رواج پیدا می کند. در اوایل دوره قاجار تذهیب نسخه ها از اصول تذهیب نظایرشان در دوره صفوی پیروی نمود و به مرور زمان با تأثیر از شرایط زمانه خود، ویژگی هایی بصری و فنی ویژه ای نظیر رواج روحیه اشرافی گری در جامعه، استفاده بسیار از رنگ طلا و تکنیک مُرصع را در تذهیب به دنبال داشت. شیوه پژوهش تحلیلی-توصیفی و روش گردآوری اطلاعات متنی و تصویری اسنادی است. برای هنینزد منسیتزمس مسم سیتب سنیت م سمیت میزت م یت س یت سییمسنز سکیکمت سمی سمنیرت سمنیتر مسنیتر سرت سمین تسمنیت رسمیار مسنیتر سناریس یرسیمتر سنت یرمست یرمنس یمست یتس نیتسیمستی منسیت منزسی نمزت سینرسیمر نسی رنمس یرنمستبدمیسنتزمسنزتمسنتیرمنستیر منستی زمنسیت زنتسیمنزتسمنیزتمسنیتزمنسیت زمنسیت زمنستیزمنت یسمنزت سینز سیتمنستز نمسیتزمسنیتز

Two common trends in the ARTs of different cultures and civilizations have principally been, first, preserving and developing native accomplishments, and second, adopting from foreign and imported elements. This dual function existed in Persian civilization from the pre-Islamic to the middle and late Islamic periods, wherein non-native elements found their way into the culture and were adopted or transformed over the course of time. Cornucopia or Horn of Plenty is among such non-native designs, the origin of which dates back to ancient Greek mythology. Cornucopia first appeared in the ART of successors of Alexander in Iran, i. e., the Seleucids and the PARThians. After a long absence, it reappeared in the ART and architecture of the QAJAR period as a result of Europeanization. The present research studies the probable continuation of this decorative motif from pre-Islamic Persian ART to the architecture of the late QAJAR era, employing a historical method and descriptive-analytical approach. Investigating the visual characteristics of cornucopia, its juxtaposition with native and non-native elements, as well as the contributory factors in motivating ARTists and ARTisans of the QAJAR period in applying this motif are among the aims to be pursued. The results demonstrate that the use of cornucopia in QAJAR architectural decoration (stuccowork, tilework, wall painting) was the outcome of a trend of farangi-sazi (Europeanization), the extreme manifestation of which could be seen from the second half of the QAJAR period (Nasserid reign) in all aspects of the social, cultural, and ARTistic life in Iran. This motif appeared in architectural decorations following the commercial and cultural interactions Iran established with European countries, which led to an acquaintance with western visual motifs. However, this motif was integrated into indigenous decorative ARTwork in the atmosphere of Persian deep-rooted traditions. The result of this native transformation appears in a harmonious composition with other Persian decorative elements. Persianized cornucopia never appears singularly, but as an element of stylized floral motifs or arabesques as are the defining characteristic of Persian ART and architecture.

Introduction: Animal combat and hunting motifs have been a prominent theme in Iranian-Islamic ART and civilization from pre-Islamic times through the QAJAR period. Although these motifs have been depicted similarly across various eras, their meanings have evolved in accordance with the sociocultural and religious contexts of each period. Consequently, this study seeks to examine the meanings of animal combat and hunting motifs in QAJAR ART, with specific attention to their spatial contexts and functional positions within architectural or ARTistic works. The central research question addressed herein is: What are the origins of animal combat and hunting motifs in QAJAR ART, considering the nature of the structure and the ARTistic medium, and how do they differ from similar motifs found in the Seljuk to Safavid periods? Research Method: This study adopts a developmental approach in terms of its objectives and employs a descriptive-analytical method in its execution. Data collection involved both library-based research, utilizing primary and relevant sources, and field studies examining ARTistic elements such as stucco work, tilework, ceramics, metalwork, wood carving, painting on wood or plaster, seal engravings, and illustrated manuscripts. The study identified 52 examples of animal combat and hunting motifs across a variety of ARTistic media, classifying them into 14 distinct types. Findings: Among the analyzed examples, tilework motifs (pARTicularly polychrome «haft-rang» or under transparent glaze painting) and stucco (low or high relief) were the most frequently represented media. Beyond the type of structure or ARTifact, the ARTistic medium, visual characteristics of the motifs, and the decorative elements surrounding or adjacent to them significantly influenced their symbolic meanings. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the roots of animal combat and hunting motifs lie in a synthesis of earlier beliefs and the popular consciousness of the QAJAR era. These motifs symbolically reference the repulsion of evil forces, popular narratives, and prevailing cultural beliefs. In essence, the motifs not only align with public sentiment but also emphasize the legitimacy of the king and his absolute and victorious power in triumphing over falsehood.

A study of the research carried out in the field of QAJAR pottery ‎shows that the prevailing attitude towards this ART during the past decades has generally been derived ‎from a kind of negative thought, which is basically defined by keywords such as “degeneration”, ‎‎”vanishing”, ‎‎”decline”, “deterioration” and “stagnation”. ‎Even with the change of attitude ‎towards QAJAR ART since the end of the 20th century, the effects of the mentioned approach still ‎remain on the later research, and traces of it can be seen from time to time in the conducted ‎research. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate and measure the correctness and ‎incorrectness of the mentioned approach. The question of the current research is that whether this ‎attitude has its roots in historical facts or is it just the result of a wrong understanding of QAJAR history ‎and ART? In other words, is QAJAR pottery really weak in terms of quantity and quality, or is it ‎subjected to adverse and biased comments? In this ‎regard, the frequency of QAJAR pottery production level will be investigated in accordance with ‎the underlying and influential factors in the process of QAJAR ARTistic trends, including the ‎discourse of development and reform, supply and demand market, and the social bases of ART. It ‎should be noted that the word “quality” in this research refers to “technical ‎quality” of the products - including the quality of clay, glaze, colors and firing - and does not ‎include their “visual aspects”. This fundamental research applies the historical-analytical method. Data collection has been done by referring to library and field documents with reference to various sources, including historical texts (books, manuscripts and documents), ‎accounts of travelers and political agents, and the works and documents preserved in museums. Data analysis has also been done by inductive method and in a round-trip process. The target ‎community of the present research is the QAJAR era pottery, including dishes, tiles and various ‎pottery objects, which were sampled in a targeted manner. The findings of the research indicate that in contrast to what has often been asserted, not only the QAJAR pottery has not been faced with “degeneration” in terms of quantity and quality, but it established a ‎special and distinct place for itself in the field of Iranian pottery. During the QAJAR period, the ‎support for the expansion and prosperity of the pottery industry by the government ‎and political elites increased significantly, leading to the development of tile making and chinaware production. In this period, no defect could be seen in the ‎production of eARThenware and generally monochrome products, but due to the influence of ‎Chinese imports and the loss of traditional and long-standing patrons, namely financiers and ‎political elites, creators of stonepaste wares were unable to produce products of high quality. Nevertheless, the ‎production of stonepaste wares continued, though not with the previous quality, for a new ‎market of emerging middle-class customers. On the other hand, it can be seen that with the ‎change of the social base of ART in this period, in addition to the expansion of patrons and ‎customers of pottery, the priority is directed to ordering tiles due to the increase in building ‎construction and restoration programs. The change in the social bases of ART ‎brought about other effects; including the one that led to the “commodification” of manufactured ‎products. Accordingly, QAJAR pottery lost the former “luxurious” character of Safavid pottery. Under such conditions, ‎QAJAR pottery was relegated from the class of noble and courtly objects and it became available to ‎the general public at the level of commercial goods. In spite of that, this issue caused more creativity in ‎QAJAR products in the field of design and coloring. On the other hand, the boom in the market of ‎supply and demand due to the emergence of the phenomenon of collecting ART works by ‎foreign museums and collectors resulted in bulk orders for the QAJAR potters, especially in the late ‎‎13th and the early 14th centuries AH/ 19th and 20th centuries AD. At the same time, the increase in demand for old works ‎led to the production of fake products known as “antiques”. The impossibility of ‎distinguishing between some of these products from the original samples is indicative of the high skill of the ‎potters of this period in producing high-quality products. Furthermore, it implicitly ‎reminds us of the important and effective role of patrons of works of ART in ‎determining the trend of ARTistic trends.‎

In the assessment of ART history in QAJAR era, in addition to their aesthetic elements, the social, historical, and political processes influencing on the formation of the works must be taken into account. These studies never detract from the values of the ARTworks, but demonstrate the share of ultra-aesthetic elements in them. The historical evidence of QAJAR era reveals to us some manifestations of the impact of policies, especially those of the governmental elite1, on the ART of this period. The headlines of governmental offices, orders, notifications, circulars, and political themes of the ARTwork are evidenced. In the second half of QAJAR government, the growth of modern ideas created a new discursive space, the development of which had a significant impact on the emergence of ARTistic styles and appearance of eclectic styles.Focus on the interaction between ART and politics and analysis of the factors affecting the formation of ARTwork are among the topics that have been less paid attention to by the researchers in this field. Yet, from among the factors influencing on the creation of works of ART, governance policies have played a decisive role. The two fundamental questions this paper was formed to answer were what relationship there has been between ART and politics during the QAJAR era and what factors have influenced on it. This ARTicle aimed at evaluating how the governing elite dealt with ARTists, ARTworks, and their outcomes by using a descriptive-analytical method. The ARTicle has been further theoretically inspired by the relationship between knowledge and power based on Michel Foucault’s thoughts. Therefore, according to Foucault’s theories and viewpoints on the relationship between knowledge and power, the relations between ART and politics were analyzed. The results of this study were indicative of the interactions between politics and ART in the form of politics supporting ART, and in some cases, contrasting it, the manifestations of which could be found in the critical aspects of the works of ART.

As an original and traditional ART in the QAJAR era, the ART of textile weaving has been of high importance. The book "The ART of Textile Weaving of the QAJAR Era", written by Zohreh Rouhfar, addresses this ART. The book has been published by Armanshahr Publications in 2012. Therefore, the present paper deals with the content and formal critique of the book. With an analytical view in her book, the author introduces different types of textiles of the QAJAR era and mentions their characteristic features by classifying the fabrics. According to the content critique and analysis made by this paper, it is shown that the author adopts an analytical view in describing the works based on primary sources. Moreover, her academic approach to the systematic classification of different types of textiles makes the book a reliable research source in the field of ART of the textile design industry. However, ignorance of some headlines and failure to provide sufficient documentation and persuasive analysis can be considered as the weaknesses of the book. Finally, weaknesses of the book, such as the lack of visual resources, the inclusion of black and white images at the end of the book, and flaws in the layout and editing of the content are discussed in the section on formal analysis and critique.

Book decoration, from Persian miniature and gilding to bookbinding, has been one of the ARTs considered by ARTists during the Islamic period. Many authors and scholars are not interested to study the ART of the QAJAR period, especially gilding, and the context of its expansion and publication, stating that gilding in this period does not have special and significant features.  In the QAJAR period, the importance and role of science and knowledge in the development of the country, the development of literacy and learning among different classes of society led to produce the books and newspapers with new techniques due to the development of Iran's relations with foreign countries, and people could achieve the number of books through lithography; however, the calligraphers and religious people of this period increased their efforts to design the patterns for lithographic prints in spite of having the gilding. Some of these works are in private collections, libraries and museums inside and outside the country; for example in Malek museum. Religious books, especially the glorious Qur'an, have always maintained their status and importance in all periods due to their sanctity, as well as recommended number of literary books, such as Saadi's generalities, Hafez's Divan, Shahnsmeh, 1001 Shab, etc. by their advocators and customers of manuscripts in the QAJAR period. From the court to the rich men, scholars, and even tourists have sought to acquire or order old and new copies according to their literacy and financial ability. The prevalence of aristocracy, science education, collection management and cross-border communication are some of the reasons for requesting these books and manuscripts. The purpose of this research is investigating the areas of social development and diversity of gilding in the QAJAR period. In this respect, this research is investigating the religious works of the QAJAR period through studying the historical books, especially travelogues, guilds and historiographies. This research seeks to answer the following questions: 1- What are the impact and effects of the social context on the ART of gilding of the QAJAR period? 2-what are the backgrounds and prevalence of gilding? The research method of this study is descriptive and analytic from a social perspective and data collection of this research is type of library research and documents. In introducing the visual and structural features of this ART of gilding in most of the researches, the related social factors were not considered in the prosperity and stagnation of this ART in the QAJAR period and it is necessary to pay attention to the social status of gilding and its impact on its spread. The research method is descriptive-analytical. First, the works were classified into several groups separately in terms of the available environment and context to develop the investigation of political, social, and cultural currents and events after examining the characteristics of gilding. There are more studies in the form of libraries, objective observation, examination of CDs and microfilms of manuscripts (image document) for considering the history and manuscripts. There are a number of manuscripts in domestic and foreign museums and private collections due to the large volume of QAJAR books, to the extent that it is not possible to access them all. For this reason, the Malek National Library and Museum, Golestan Palace, the Library of the Islamic Consultative Assembly and the number of 100 manuscripts are the statistical population of this research which is selected as an unlikely sampling. The present research seeks to introduce the general characteristics of the ART of gilding and its diversity, which have appeared in numerous and diverse works such as various books, lacquer and oil works and contracts, Haliyeh, ornaments, etc. in QAJAR society. There are not any comprehensive ARTicles or dissertations in this field. Most of the researches and studies in the field of ART in the QAJAR period have been done in the field of painting and architecture with brief references to gilding and their ARTists. Findings of this research show that the ART of gilding did not stagnate during the QAJAR period, and the king, elders, nobles and ordinary people were interested in having exquisite manuscripts. There is high production of manuscripts in three groups of religious, literary, scientific and cultural books, due to prevalence of literacy and increasing spirit of aristocracy, which often had significant ARTistic value and was also considered by many tourists, ambassadors and brokers. Gilders also had class, status and social value, and gilding in this period, in addition to decorating manuscripts and designing new works which can be seen in the lacquer and oil works, especially pen cases, indicate many examples due to the growth of literacy and learning, and the prevalence of luxury in QAJAR society, and most of the literate people of society were interested to have such exquisite pen cases with them.

In this ARTicle, the aim has been to analyze Kamal al-Molk's ARTistic decisions in the field of Iranian ART in the QAJAR era using the descriptive-analytic method. This analysis has been in four main periods of Kamal al-Molk's life, which include: 1- Examining QAJAR ART field before Mohammad Ghaffari arrived in Tehran 2- Examining Mohammad Ghaffari's position in the ART field from the age of 12 until entering Nasser al-Din Shah's court 3- Examining the position of Kamal al-Molk in Nasser al-Din Shah's court 4- A study of Kamal al-Molk's character and position in the European ART field. The main research question is: Could Kamal al-Molk learn the 19th century style instead of the 17th century style of painting during his cultural trip to Europe and bring that to Iran? In the study of the first period, it is determined which ARTists are present in this field and what impact they have each had on this field among other issues. Among the ARTists, we can mention Mohammad Sadegh, Abdullah Naghash, Mehr Ali, Mirza Baba Isfahani, Abu Trab, and Sani al-Molk. The studies in the second period are as follows: Identifying the famous ARTists of this period and also determining the influence of ARTists on the QAJAR ART field; the result of which has had a great impact on the ARTistic life and ARTistic future of Kamal al-Molk. ARTists studied in this historical context include: Lotfali Shirazi, Mahmoud Khan Saba, Ismail Jalayer, and Mazin al-Dawlah. Another research that has been done in this historical context is the study of the role of Mazin al-Dawlah in the education of Kamal al-Molk and the choice of Mohammad Ghaffari's ARTistic style towards the style of realism. The third issue to be studied is the position of Kamal al-Molk in the ART field of Nasser al-Din Shah. This historical context is one of the most important positions of Kamal al-Molk for him; positive things happened and it can be considered a turning point in Kamal al-Molk's life. In this field of ART, there is a powerful nucleus in the center of the field that causes the field of ART to become stronger and stronger, and this powerful nucleus is none other than Nasser al-Din Shah QAJAR, who was a supporter of Kamal al-Molk. One of the important events that happened to Kamal al-Mulk in this period is that he is no longer a student of Dar al-Fonun school and in addition to gaining the position of a painter, he also becomes a professor. Of course, he had other students besides Naser al-Din Shah. During this period, sources state that Kamal al-Molk received a salary from Nasser al-Din Shah for the paintings he painted, which shows the progress and strength of Kamal al-Molk's position in the QAJAR field of ART. In this course, an independent and dependent discussion is presented. The dependent pole indicates Kamal al-Molk's dependence on the center of the field, and the independent pole indicates his lack of dependence on the center of the field. In this period of Kamal-ol-Molk's life, he is at the center of the field, because he is in the center of Naser al-Din Shah’s field, without whom, Kamal al-Molk would have lost his special place, and of course, this dependence on the central core of the field caused controversy, and giving in to the tastes of the court and the king was against the will of Kamal al-Molk. Kamal al-Molk did not even have the will to change the tastes of the courtiers and the king during this period and began working as a court painter. One of the instructions given to Kamal al-Molk during this period was to draw a picture of the king and his children in a realistic style. In that period, the presence of the image of the king on the billboards, banknotes and even newspapers showed the strength of the foundations of the monarchy. Based on findings and according to Bourdieu's theories, it can be said that considering that Kamal al-Molk was located in the dependent pole of QAJAR ART field, he had to accept the rules governing the ART field. One of the most important events that took place in this period is the arrival of the camera in Iran, which itself has had a great impact on the work of all ARTists, including painters. The arrival of the camera in Iran became one of the reasons for the attention of ARTists and ART lovers to the Realistic style. During the reign of Nasser al-Din Shah, painters were sent to Europe to study, and Kamal al-Molk was no exception. In this period, we also see his copies of paintings by ARTists such as Rembrandt and Thyssen. The first painter Kamal al-Molk came into contact with in Europe was Fantin Latour, whose style has also been influential in the choice of classical style and realism by Kamal al-Molk. He has also been considered in European societies during this period, so it can be said that Kamal al-Molk has also been present in the European ART field.

Problem Definition: The ART of Court Portrait Painting is one of the Main ARTs of the QAJAR Period, Which Continued Until the Period of Muzaffar al-Din Shah. The Focus of the Current Research is the Study of the ART of Court Portrait Painting during the Period of Muzaffar al-Din Shah and the Examination of Various half-length and full-length examples presented by him. Based on this, in this Research, the Main Question of the Current Research is as follows: What are the Structural and Content Characteristics of the Portrait Paintings of Mozaffar al-Din Shah QAJAR period? Objective: Knowing the Paintings of the QAJAR Period as a PART of Iranian ART is one of the Goals of this Research. Research Method: The Present research is Descriptive-Analytical and has been Carried out Using library Sources and Museum Image Samples. Results: The Current Research Shows that the Integration of ART and Politics in the Paintings of Mozaffaruddin Shah QAJAR period Through the use of Symbols of Power in the Images is a Continuation of the Pictorial Traditions of the Previous periods. The Extensive use of Portrait Painting Throughout the QAJAR Period can be Seen as an Attempt to legitimize the Monarchy, Some of These Paintings are Half-Length and Some are Full-Length Portraits, and the Influence of Western Realistic Photography and Nature Can be Seen in the Paintings.